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<a name="Regs-and-Memory"></a>
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<p>
Next: <a href="Arithmetic.html#Arithmetic" accesskey="n" rel="next">Arithmetic</a>, Previous: <a href="Constants.html#Constants" accesskey="p" rel="previous">Constants</a>, Up: <a href="RTL.html#RTL" accesskey="u" rel="up">RTL</a> [<a href="index.html#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="Option-Index.html#Option-Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
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<hr>
<a name="Registers-and-Memory"></a>
<h3 class="section">14.8 Registers and Memory</h3>
<a name="index-RTL-register-expressions"></a>
<a name="index-RTL-memory-expressions"></a>
<p>Here are the RTL expression types for describing access to machine
registers and to main memory.
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dd><a name="index-reg"></a>
<a name="index-hard-registers"></a>
<a name="index-pseudo-registers"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code>(reg:<var>m</var> <var>n</var>)</code></dt>
<dd><p>For small values of the integer <var>n</var> (those that are less than
<code>FIRST_PSEUDO_REGISTER</code>), this stands for a reference to machine
register number <var>n</var>: a <em>hard register</em>. For larger values of
<var>n</var>, it stands for a temporary value or <em>pseudo register</em>.
The compiler’s strategy is to generate code assuming an unlimited
number of such pseudo registers, and later convert them into hard
registers or into memory references.
</p>
<p><var>m</var> is the machine mode of the reference. It is necessary because
machines can generally refer to each register in more than one mode.
For example, a register may contain a full word but there may be
instructions to refer to it as a half word or as a single byte, as
well as instructions to refer to it as a floating point number of
various precisions.
</p>
<p>Even for a register that the machine can access in only one mode,
the mode must always be specified.
</p>
<p>The symbol <code>FIRST_PSEUDO_REGISTER</code> is defined by the machine
description, since the number of hard registers on the machine is an
invariant characteristic of the machine. Note, however, that not
all of the machine registers must be general registers. All the
machine registers that can be used for storage of data are given
hard register numbers, even those that can be used only in certain
instructions or can hold only certain types of data.
</p>
<p>A hard register may be accessed in various modes throughout one
function, but each pseudo register is given a natural mode
and is accessed only in that mode. When it is necessary to describe
an access to a pseudo register using a nonnatural mode, a <code>subreg</code>
expression is used.
</p>
<p>A <code>reg</code> expression with a machine mode that specifies more than
one word of data may actually stand for several consecutive registers.
If in addition the register number specifies a hardware register, then
it actually represents several consecutive hardware registers starting
with the specified one.
</p>
<p>Each pseudo register number used in a function’s RTL code is
represented by a unique <code>reg</code> expression.
</p>
<a name="index-FIRST_005fVIRTUAL_005fREGISTER"></a>
<a name="index-LAST_005fVIRTUAL_005fREGISTER"></a>
<p>Some pseudo register numbers, those within the range of
<code>FIRST_VIRTUAL_REGISTER</code> to <code>LAST_VIRTUAL_REGISTER</code> only
appear during the RTL generation phase and are eliminated before the
optimization phases. These represent locations in the stack frame that
cannot be determined until RTL generation for the function has been
completed. The following virtual register numbers are defined:
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dd><a name="index-VIRTUAL_005fINCOMING_005fARGS_005fREGNUM"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code>VIRTUAL_INCOMING_ARGS_REGNUM</code></dt>
<dd><p>This points to the first word of the incoming arguments passed on the
stack. Normally these arguments are placed there by the caller, but the
callee may have pushed some arguments that were previously passed in
registers.
</p>
<a name="index-FIRST_005fPARM_005fOFFSET-and-virtual-registers"></a>
<a name="index-ARG_005fPOINTER_005fREGNUM-and-virtual-registers"></a>
<p>When RTL generation is complete, this virtual register is replaced
by the sum of the register given by <code>ARG_POINTER_REGNUM</code> and the
value of <code>FIRST_PARM_OFFSET</code>.
</p>
<a name="index-VIRTUAL_005fSTACK_005fVARS_005fREGNUM"></a>
<a name="index-FRAME_005fGROWS_005fDOWNWARD-and-virtual-registers"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code>VIRTUAL_STACK_VARS_REGNUM</code></dt>
<dd><p>If <code>FRAME_GROWS_DOWNWARD</code> is defined to a nonzero value, this points
to immediately above the first variable on the stack. Otherwise, it points
to the first variable on the stack.
</p>
<a name="index-TARGET_005fSTARTING_005fFRAME_005fOFFSET-and-virtual-registers"></a>
<a name="index-FRAME_005fPOINTER_005fREGNUM-and-virtual-registers"></a>
<p><code>VIRTUAL_STACK_VARS_REGNUM</code> is replaced with the sum of the
register given by <code>FRAME_POINTER_REGNUM</code> and the value
<code>TARGET_STARTING_FRAME_OFFSET</code>.
</p>
<a name="index-VIRTUAL_005fSTACK_005fDYNAMIC_005fREGNUM"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code>VIRTUAL_STACK_DYNAMIC_REGNUM</code></dt>
<dd><p>This points to the location of dynamically allocated memory on the stack
immediately after the stack pointer has been adjusted by the amount of
memory desired.
</p>
<a name="index-STACK_005fDYNAMIC_005fOFFSET-and-virtual-registers"></a>
<a name="index-STACK_005fPOINTER_005fREGNUM-and-virtual-registers"></a>
<p>This virtual register is replaced by the sum of the register given by
<code>STACK_POINTER_REGNUM</code> and the value <code>STACK_DYNAMIC_OFFSET</code>.
</p>
<a name="index-VIRTUAL_005fOUTGOING_005fARGS_005fREGNUM"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code>VIRTUAL_OUTGOING_ARGS_REGNUM</code></dt>
<dd><p>This points to the location in the stack at which outgoing arguments
should be written when the stack is pre-pushed (arguments pushed using
push insns should always use <code>STACK_POINTER_REGNUM</code>).
</p>
<a name="index-STACK_005fPOINTER_005fOFFSET-and-virtual-registers"></a>
<p>This virtual register is replaced by the sum of the register given by
<code>STACK_POINTER_REGNUM</code> and the value <code>STACK_POINTER_OFFSET</code>.
</p></dd>
</dl>
<a name="index-subreg"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code>(subreg:<var>m1</var> <var>reg:m2</var> <var>bytenum</var>)</code></dt>
<dd>
<p><code>subreg</code> expressions are used to refer to a register in a machine
mode other than its natural one, or to refer to one register of
a multi-part <code>reg</code> that actually refers to several registers.
</p>
<p>Each pseudo register has a natural mode. If it is necessary to
operate on it in a different mode, the register must be
enclosed in a <code>subreg</code>.
</p>
<p>There are currently three supported types for the first operand of a
<code>subreg</code>:
</p><ul>
<li> pseudo registers
This is the most common case. Most <code>subreg</code>s have pseudo
<code>reg</code>s as their first operand.
</li><li> mem
<code>subreg</code>s of <code>mem</code> were common in earlier versions of GCC and
are still supported. During the reload pass these are replaced by plain
<code>mem</code>s. On machines that do not do instruction scheduling, use of
<code>subreg</code>s of <code>mem</code> are still used, but this is no longer
recommended. Such <code>subreg</code>s are considered to be
<code>register_operand</code>s rather than <code>memory_operand</code>s before and
during reload. Because of this, the scheduling passes cannot properly
schedule instructions with <code>subreg</code>s of <code>mem</code>, so for machines
that do scheduling, <code>subreg</code>s of <code>mem</code> should never be used.
To support this, the combine and recog passes have explicit code to
inhibit the creation of <code>subreg</code>s of <code>mem</code> when
<code>INSN_SCHEDULING</code> is defined.
<p>The use of <code>subreg</code>s of <code>mem</code> after the reload pass is an area
that is not well understood and should be avoided. There is still some
code in the compiler to support this, but this code has possibly rotted.
This use of <code>subreg</code>s is discouraged and will most likely not be
supported in the future.
</p>
</li><li> hard registers
It is seldom necessary to wrap hard registers in <code>subreg</code>s; such
registers would normally reduce to a single <code>reg</code> rtx. This use of
<code>subreg</code>s is discouraged and may not be supported in the future.
</li></ul>
<p><code>subreg</code>s of <code>subreg</code>s are not supported. Using
<code>simplify_gen_subreg</code> is the recommended way to avoid this problem.
</p>
<p><code>subreg</code>s come in two distinct flavors, each having its own
usage and rules:
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt>Paradoxical subregs</dt>
<dd><p>When <var>m1</var> is strictly wider than <var>m2</var>, the <code>subreg</code>
expression is called <em>paradoxical</em>. The canonical test for this
class of <code>subreg</code> is:
</p>
<div class="smallexample">
<pre class="smallexample">paradoxical_subreg_p (<var>m1</var>, <var>m2</var>)
</pre></div>
<p>Paradoxical <code>subreg</code>s can be used as both lvalues and rvalues.
When used as an lvalue, the low-order bits of the source value
are stored in <var>reg</var> and the high-order bits are discarded.
When used as an rvalue, the low-order bits of the <code>subreg</code> are
taken from <var>reg</var> while the high-order bits may or may not be
defined.
</p>
<p>The high-order bits of rvalues are defined in the following circumstances:
</p>
<ul>
<li> <code>subreg</code>s of <code>mem</code>
When <var>m2</var> is smaller than a word, the macro <code>LOAD_EXTEND_OP</code>,
can control how the high-order bits are defined.
</li><li> <code>subreg</code> of <code>reg</code>s
The upper bits are defined when <code>SUBREG_PROMOTED_VAR_P</code> is true.
<code>SUBREG_PROMOTED_UNSIGNED_P</code> describes what the upper bits hold.
Such subregs usually represent local variables, register variables
and parameter pseudo variables that have been promoted to a wider mode.
</li></ul>
<p><var>bytenum</var> is always zero for a paradoxical <code>subreg</code>, even on
big-endian targets.
</p>
<p>For example, the paradoxical <code>subreg</code>:
</p>
<div class="smallexample">
<pre class="smallexample">(set (subreg:SI (reg:HI <var>x</var>) 0) <var>y</var>)
</pre></div>
<p>stores the lower 2 bytes of <var>y</var> in <var>x</var> and discards the upper
2 bytes. A subsequent:
</p>
<div class="smallexample">
<pre class="smallexample">(set <var>z</var> (subreg:SI (reg:HI <var>x</var>) 0))
</pre></div>
<p>would set the lower two bytes of <var>z</var> to <var>y</var> and set the upper
two bytes to an unknown value assuming <code>SUBREG_PROMOTED_VAR_P</code> is
false.
</p>
</dd>
<dt>Normal subregs</dt>
<dd><p>When <var>m1</var> is at least as narrow as <var>m2</var> the <code>subreg</code>
expression is called <em>normal</em>.
</p>
<a name="index-REGMODE_005fNATURAL_005fSIZE"></a>
<p>Normal <code>subreg</code>s restrict consideration to certain bits of
<var>reg</var>. For this purpose, <var>reg</var> is divided into
individually-addressable blocks in which each block has:
</p>
<div class="smallexample">
<pre class="smallexample">REGMODE_NATURAL_SIZE (<var>m2</var>)
</pre></div>
<p>bytes. Usually the value is <code>UNITS_PER_WORD</code>; that is,
most targets usually treat each word of a register as being
independently addressable.
</p>
<p>There are two types of normal <code>subreg</code>. If <var>m1</var> is known
to be no bigger than a block, the <code>subreg</code> refers to the
least-significant part (or <em>lowpart</em>) of one block of <var>reg</var>.
If <var>m1</var> is known to be larger than a block, the <code>subreg</code> refers
to two or more complete blocks.
</p>
<p>When used as an lvalue, <code>subreg</code> is a block-based accessor.
Storing to a <code>subreg</code> modifies all the blocks of <var>reg</var> that
overlap the <code>subreg</code>, but it leaves the other blocks of <var>reg</var>
alone.
</p>
<p>When storing to a normal <code>subreg</code> that is smaller than a block,
the other bits of the referenced block are usually left in an undefined
state. This laxity makes it easier to generate efficient code for
such instructions. To represent an instruction that preserves all the
bits outside of those in the <code>subreg</code>, use <code>strict_low_part</code>
or <code>zero_extract</code> around the <code>subreg</code>.
</p>
<p><var>bytenum</var> must identify the offset of the first byte of the
<code>subreg</code> from the start of <var>reg</var>, assuming that <var>reg</var> is
laid out in memory order. The memory order of bytes is defined by
two target macros, <code>WORDS_BIG_ENDIAN</code> and <code>BYTES_BIG_ENDIAN</code>:
</p>
<ul>
<li> <a name="index-WORDS_005fBIG_005fENDIAN_002c-effect-on-subreg"></a>
<code>WORDS_BIG_ENDIAN</code>, if set to 1, says that byte number zero is
part of the most significant word; otherwise, it is part of the least
significant word.
</li><li> <a name="index-BYTES_005fBIG_005fENDIAN_002c-effect-on-subreg"></a>
<code>BYTES_BIG_ENDIAN</code>, if set to 1, says that byte number zero is
the most significant byte within a word; otherwise, it is the least
significant byte within a word.
</li></ul>
<a name="index-FLOAT_005fWORDS_005fBIG_005fENDIAN_002c-_0028lack-of_0029-effect-on-subreg"></a>
<p>On a few targets, <code>FLOAT_WORDS_BIG_ENDIAN</code> disagrees with
<code>WORDS_BIG_ENDIAN</code>. However, most parts of the compiler treat
floating point values as if they had the same endianness as integer
values. This works because they handle them solely as a collection of
integer values, with no particular numerical value. Only real.cc and
the runtime libraries care about <code>FLOAT_WORDS_BIG_ENDIAN</code>.
</p>
<p>Thus,
</p>
<div class="smallexample">
<pre class="smallexample">(subreg:HI (reg:SI <var>x</var>) 2)
</pre></div>
<p>on a <code>BYTES_BIG_ENDIAN</code>, ‘<samp>UNITS_PER_WORD == 4</samp>’ target is the same as
</p>
<div class="smallexample">
<pre class="smallexample">(subreg:HI (reg:SI <var>x</var>) 0)
</pre></div>
<p>on a little-endian, ‘<samp>UNITS_PER_WORD == 4</samp>’ target. Both
<code>subreg</code>s access the lower two bytes of register <var>x</var>.
</p>
<p>Note that the byte offset is a polynomial integer; it may not be a
compile-time constant on targets with variable-sized modes. However,
the restrictions above mean that there are only a certain set of
acceptable offsets for a given combination of <var>m1</var> and <var>m2</var>.
The compiler can always tell which blocks a valid subreg occupies, and
whether the subreg is a lowpart of a block.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>
<p>A <code>MODE_PARTIAL_INT</code> mode behaves as if it were as wide as the
corresponding <code>MODE_INT</code> mode, except that it has a number of
undefined bits, which are determined by the precision of the
mode.
</p>
<p>For example, on a little-endian target which defines <code>PSImode</code>
to have a precision of 20 bits:
</p>
<div class="smallexample">
<pre class="smallexample">(subreg:PSI (reg:SI 0) 0)
</pre></div>
<p>accesses the low 20 bits of ‘<samp>(reg:SI 0)</samp>’.
</p>
<a name="index-REGMODE_005fNATURAL_005fSIZE-1"></a>
<p>Continuing with a <code>PSImode</code> precision of 20 bits, if we assume
‘<samp>REGMODE_NATURAL_SIZE (DImode) <= 4</samp>’,
then the following two <code>subreg</code>s:
</p>
<div class="smallexample">
<pre class="smallexample">(subreg:PSI (reg:DI 0) 0)
(subreg:PSI (reg:DI 0) 4)
</pre></div>
<p>represent accesses to the low 20 bits of the two halves of
‘<samp>(reg:DI 0)</samp>’.
</p>
<p>If ‘<samp>REGMODE_NATURAL_SIZE (PSImode) <= 2</samp>’ then these two <code>subreg</code>s:
</p>
<div class="smallexample">
<pre class="smallexample">(subreg:HI (reg:PSI 0) 0)
(subreg:HI (reg:PSI 0) 2)
</pre></div>
<p>represent independent 2-byte accesses that together span the whole
of ‘<samp>(reg:PSI 0)</samp>’. Storing to the first <code>subreg</code> does not
affect the value of the second, and vice versa, so the assignment:
</p>
<div class="smallexample">
<pre class="smallexample">(set (subreg:HI (reg:PSI 0) 0) (reg:HI 4))
</pre></div>
<p>sets the low 16 bits of ‘<samp>(reg:PSI 0)</samp>’ to ‘<samp>(reg:HI 4)</samp>’, and
the high 4 defined bits of ‘<samp>(reg:PSI 0)</samp>’ retain their
original value. The behavior here is the same as for
normal <code>subreg</code>s, when there are no
<code>MODE_PARTIAL_INT</code> modes involved.
</p>
<a name="index-TARGET_005fCAN_005fCHANGE_005fMODE_005fCLASS-and-subreg-semantics"></a>
<p>The rules above apply to both pseudo <var>reg</var>s and hard <var>reg</var>s.
If the semantics are not correct for particular combinations of
<var>m1</var>, <var>m2</var> and hard <var>reg</var>, the target-specific code
must ensure that those combinations are never used. For example:
</p>
<div class="smallexample">
<pre class="smallexample">TARGET_CAN_CHANGE_MODE_CLASS (<var>m2</var>, <var>m1</var>, <var>class</var>)
</pre></div>
<p>must be false for every class <var>class</var> that includes <var>reg</var>.
</p>
<p>GCC must be able to determine at compile time whether a subreg is
paradoxical, whether it occupies a whole number of blocks, or whether
it is a lowpart of a block. This means that certain combinations of
variable-sized mode are not permitted. For example, if <var>m2</var>
holds <var>n</var> <code>SI</code> values, where <var>n</var> is greater than zero,
it is not possible to form a <code>DI</code> <code>subreg</code> of it; such a
<code>subreg</code> would be paradoxical when <var>n</var> is 1 but not when
<var>n</var> is greater than 1.
</p>
<a name="index-SUBREG_005fREG"></a>
<a name="index-SUBREG_005fBYTE"></a>
<p>The first operand of a <code>subreg</code> expression is customarily accessed
with the <code>SUBREG_REG</code> macro and the second operand is customarily
accessed with the <code>SUBREG_BYTE</code> macro.
</p>
<p>It has been several years since a platform in which
<code>BYTES_BIG_ENDIAN</code> not equal to <code>WORDS_BIG_ENDIAN</code> has
been tested. Anyone wishing to support such a platform in the future
may be confronted with code rot.
</p>
<a name="index-scratch"></a>
<a name="index-scratch-operands"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code>(scratch:<var>m</var>)</code></dt>
<dd><p>This represents a scratch register that will be required for the
execution of a single instruction and not used subsequently. It is
converted into a <code>reg</code> by either the local register allocator or
the reload pass.
</p>
<p><code>scratch</code> is usually present inside a <code>clobber</code> operation
(see <a href="Side-Effects.html#Side-Effects">Side Effects</a>).
</p>
<p>On some machines, the condition code register is given a register number
and a <code>reg</code> is used.
Other machines store condition codes in general
registers; in such cases a pseudo register should be used.
</p>
<p>Some machines, such as the SPARC and RS/6000, have two sets of
arithmetic instructions, one that sets and one that does not set the
condition code. This is best handled by normally generating the
instruction that does not set the condition code, and making a pattern
that both performs the arithmetic and sets the condition code register.
For examples, search for ‘<samp>addcc</samp>’ and ‘<samp>andcc</samp>’ in <samp>sparc.md</samp>.
</p>
<a name="index-pc"></a>
<a name="index-program-counter"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code>(pc)</code></dt>
<dd><p>This represents the machine’s program counter. It has no operands and
may not have a machine mode. <code>(pc)</code> may be validly used only in
certain specific contexts in jump instructions.
</p>
<a name="index-pc_005frtx"></a>
<p>There is only one expression object of code <code>pc</code>; it is the value
of the variable <code>pc_rtx</code>. Any attempt to create an expression of
code <code>pc</code> will return <code>pc_rtx</code>.
</p>
<p>All instructions that do not jump alter the program counter implicitly
by incrementing it, but there is no need to mention this in the RTL.
</p>
<a name="index-mem"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code>(mem:<var>m</var> <var>addr</var> <var>alias</var>)</code></dt>
<dd><p>This RTX represents a reference to main memory at an address
represented by the expression <var>addr</var>. <var>m</var> specifies how large
a unit of memory is accessed. <var>alias</var> specifies an alias set for the
reference. In general two items are in different alias sets if they cannot
reference the same memory address.
</p>
<p>The construct <code>(mem:BLK (scratch))</code> is considered to alias all
other memories. Thus it may be used as a memory barrier in epilogue
stack deallocation patterns.
</p>
<a name="index-concat"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code>(concat<var>m</var> <var>rtx</var> <var>rtx</var>)</code></dt>
<dd><p>This RTX represents the concatenation of two other RTXs. This is used
for complex values. It should only appear in the RTL attached to
declarations and during RTL generation. It should not appear in the
ordinary insn chain.
</p>
<a name="index-concatn"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code>(concatn<var>m</var> [<var>rtx</var> …])</code></dt>
<dd><p>This RTX represents the concatenation of all the <var>rtx</var> to make a
single value. Like <code>concat</code>, this should only appear in
declarations, and not in the insn chain.
</p></dd>
</dl>
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